Chapter-15: Overcoming Obstacles in Your
Presentation & Thesis Writing
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Topics
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15.1.
Overcome common obstacles in public speaking.
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15.2 In our diverse world,
awareness of difference in values is key to success.
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15. 3 Nonverbal Delivery
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15.4
Principles of Nonverbal Communication
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15.5
Types of Nonverbal Communication
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15.6
Space: Four Main Categories of Distance
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15.7
Positions on the Stage: Visual Aids
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15.8
Video Clips
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15.9
Nonverbal Strategies for Success with Your Audience
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15.10 Thesis Writing and Presentation
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15.1.
Overcome common obstacles in public speaking.
We have examined steps to help you investigate and build an
effective speech, and discussed some myths, and realities, associated with
public speaking. In order to prepare you for success, let’s revisit some
obstacles you’ll want to avoid in order to make your content as accessible to
your audience as possible. To build on what we covered, let’s examine three key
barriers to an effective speech: language, perception, and ethnocentrism. As a
speaker, you will need to make an effort to consider each one and how you will
create a bridge, rather than contribute to a barrier, with your audience.
Language
Language serves both to bring us together and to help us reinforce
our group status. Language can include established languages, like Spanish or
French; dialects; or even subtle in-group language styles within a larger
language context. Have you ever been part of a group that has its own words or
phrases, expressions that have meanings understood only by the members of your
group? It is not unusual for families, groups of close friends, classmates, and
romantic couples to develop these kinds of “private language.” When a group
communicates in its own way, it can create a sense of belonging, reinforcing
your membership and place in that group.
People often tell each other stories, which often communicate a
value or meaning in the culture. Perhaps you have heard the saying, “The early
bird gets the worm,” with its underlying meaning that the one who is prepared
and ready gets the reward. In North America, this saying is common, and
reflects a cultural value about promptness and competition. Diverse cultures
have diverse sayings that reflect differences in values, customs, and
traditions
Judy Pearson, Paul Nelson,[137] and Joseph DeVito[138] describe
two key areas of language that serve to bring us together, but because they
involve a specialized knowledge unique to the group or community, they can
create barriers to outsiders. These are often called co-languages,
because they exist and interact with a dominant language but are nonetheless
distinct from it. Jargon is an occupation-specific language used by
people in a given profession. Think of the way medical caregivers speak to one
another, frequently using abbreviations for procedures and medications. Slang
is the use of existing or newly invented words to take the place of
standard or traditional words with the intent of adding an unconventional,
nonstandard, humorous, or rebellious effect. Think of how the words “cool,”
“glitzy,” or “scam” are used in casual conversation. In addition to
language-based barriers, there are also several factors, many of which we have
visited in previous chapters, which can act as barriers to effective
intercultural communication.
Nature
of Perception
Perception is an important part of the communication process, and
it is important to recognize that other people’s perceptions may be different
from our own in several ways. Your cultural value system, what you value
and pay attention to, will significantly affect your speech and how your
listeners perceive it. North American culture places an emphasis on space, with
an “appropriate” distance while shaking hands, for example. If a North American
travels to France, Spain, or Chile, he or she will find that a much smaller
sense of personal space is the norm, and may receive a kiss on the cheek as a
greeting from a new acquaintance. If the North American is uncomfortable, the person
from France may not attribute his or her discomfort to personal space, and they
may have a miscommunication. Learning about other cultures can help you adapt
your speech in diverse settings, and make you more comfortable as you enter new
situations where others’ perceptions are different from your own.
Role identities, which involve expected social behavior,
are another aspect of intercultural communication that can act as a barrier to
effective communication. How does your culture expect men and women to act and
behave? How about children, or elders, and older citizens? The word “role”
implies an expectation of how one is supposed to act in certain settings and
scenes; just like in a play or a movie, each person has a culturally bound set
of role expectations. Who works as a doctor, a lawyer, a nurse, or a welder? As
times and cultures change, so do role identities. Business management was once
perceived as a profession dominated by men, but in recent decades women have
become actively involved in starting, developing, and facilitating the growth
of businesses. As a speaker, your role will necessarily involve preparation and
practice, and to a degree an element of leadership as you present your content
and guide your audience through it.
Your audience also has a role, which involves active listening and
displays of interest. Your overlapping roles of interest in the topic are keys
to an effective speech. Goals reflect what we value and are willing to
work for and vary widely across cultures. In some cultures, an afternoon lunch
is the main meal of the day, a time with the family, which is followed by a
siesta or resting period. In the United States and northern Europe, people
often have a quick lunch or even a “working lunch,” with the emphasis on continuing
productivity and the goal of personal and organizational achievement. The
differences in values, such as family time versus work time, establish
themselves in how we lead our lives. To a European who is accustomed to a full
month of vacation each year, the thought of someone from the United States
spending a few intense, three-day power weekends hiking, skiing, or sailing
might seem stressful. To a goal-oriented North American, the power weekend may
be just the rejuvenation required to get “back in the game.” Time, and limits
on it, will be an important goal in your speech.
15.2 In our diverse world,
awareness of difference in values is key to success.
Geert Hofstede has spent decades researching the concepts of
individualism versus collectivism across diverse cultures. He characterized
U.S. culture as strongly individualistic: people perceive things primarily from
their own viewpoint, see themselves as individuals capable of making his or her
own decisions, and feel responsible for their actions and solving their own
problems.[139] He also found many countries in Asia and South America to be
much more collectivistic, focusing on the needs of the family, community, or
larger group. In this context, cultural background can become a barrier to an
effective speech if your fail to consider your audience and their needs.
In addition, there are other cultural dimensions that influence
how we relate to the world that impact our intercultural communication. Carley
Dodd discusses the degree to which cultures communicate rules explicitly or
implicitly.[140] In an explicit context, the rules are discussed before we hold
a meeting, negotiate a contract, or even play a game. In the United States, we
want to make sure everyone knows the rules beforehand and get frustrated if
people do not follow the rules. In the Middle East and Latin America, the rules
are generally understood by everyone, and people from these cultures tend to be
more accommodating to small differences and are less concerned about whether or
not everyone plays by the same rules. Our ability to adapt to contexts that are
explicit or implicit is related to our ability to tolerate uncertainty.[141] In
the United States, we often look to guiding principles rather than rules for
every circumstance, and believe that with hard work, we can achieve our goals
even though we do not know the outcome. In Peru, Chile, and Argentina, however,
people prefer to reduce ambiguity and uncertainty, and like to know exactly
what is expected and what the probable outcome will be.[142]
Table
10.2. Cultural Dimensions
Individualistic
Cultures:
People
value individual freedom and personal independence.
Collectivistic
Cultures:
People
value the family or community over the needs of the individual.
Explicit-Rule
Cultures:
People
discuss rules and expectations clearly to make sure the rules are known.
Implicit-Rule
Cultures.
People’s
customs are implied and known by everyone, but not always clearly stated.
Uncertainty-Accepting
Cultures: People often focus on principles, rather than having
rules for every circumstance, and accept that the outcome is not always known.
Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures: People often focus on rules for every
circumstance and do not like ambiguity or not knowing what the
outcome will be. When we consider whether a culture as a whole places more
emphasis on the individual or the community, we must be careful to
recognize that individual members of the culture may hold beliefs or
customs that do not follow a cultural norm. Stereotypes, defined
as generalizations about a group of people that oversimplify their
culture,[143] can be one significant barrier to effective intercultural
communication. Gordon Allport, a pioneer in the field of communication
research, examined how and when we formulate or use stereotypes to
characterize distinct groups or communities. He found that we tend to
stereotype people and cultures with which we have little contact.[144]
In addition, your first-hand experience will provide you with an
increased understanding of prejudice. Prejudice involves a negative
preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social behavior. Within
the United States, can you make a list of people or groups that may be treated
with prejudice by the majority group? Your list may include specific ethnic,
racial, or cultural groups that are stereotyped in the media, but it could also
include socioeconomic groups or even different regions of the United States.
For example, Native Americans were long treated with prejudice in early Western
films. Can you imagine, in other countries they may also treat groups with
prejudice? In many parts of South America, indigenous people are treated poorly
and their rights as citizens are sometimes not respected. Has treatment of
Native Americans changed in North America? It has also changed, and continues
to change in North and South
America.
People who treat other with prejudice often make judgments about
the group or communities. As all port illustrated for us, we often assume
characteristics about groups with which we have little contact. By extension,
we groups with which we have little contact. By extension, we can sometimes
assume similarity that people are all basically similar, in effect denying
cultural, racial, or ethnic differences. We sometimes describe the United
States as a “melting pot,” where individual and cultural differences blend to
become a homogeneous culture. This “melting pot” often denies cultural
differences. The metaphor of a “salad bowl,” where communities and cultures
retain their distinctive characteristics or “flavor,” serves as more equitable
model. In this “salad bowl,” we value the differences and what they contribute
to the whole. We can also run the risk of assuming familiarity with cultures
when we attribute characteristics of one group to everyone who has connections
to the larger culture. For example, people may assume that we are familiar with
all Native Americans if we know one tribe in our community, forgetting the
distinct differences that exist between tribes and even between individual
Native Americans who live either in urban areas or on reservations.
Ethnocentrism
Finally, your experience may help you to not view the world and
its diversity of cultures in an ethnocentric way. Ethnocentrism means
you go beyond pride in your culture, heritage or background and hold the
“conviction that (you) know more and are better than those of different
cultures.”[145] This belief in the superiority of one’s own group can guide
individual and group behavior. If you visit a new country where people do
things differently, you would be considered ethnocentric if you viewed their
way as wrong because it is not the same way you were taught.
Groups are considered ethnocentric if they prejudge individuals or
other groups of people based on negative preconceptions.
Key
Takeaway
For a
successful oral presentation, do your best to avoid obstacles to understanding,
such as language expressions (i.e., unknown to other listeners), cultural
perceptions, and ethnocentrism.
Exercises
1. Consider
the vocabulary that you and your classmates generally use in casual
conversations.
Are
there slang expressions that you often use? Is there a jargon related to your
career or major field of study? Make a list of slang and jargon words that you
might want to use in a speech. Now, consider whether you can substitute
Standard English words that will be better understood by all your listeners,
remembering that in a business context it is often best to avoid slang and
jargon.
2.
Pretend you were going to invite someone from a completely different culture to
come home with you for a break or holiday. Make a list of ideas, words, or
places you would want to share with them to gain insight of you, your family,
or your community.
3. How
can a speaker prepare a speech for a diverse audience? Explain and give some
specific examples. Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
4.
Observe someone presenting a speech. Given the discussion in this chapter, what
elements of their speech could you use in your speech? What elements would you
not want to use? Why? Compare with a classmate.
[137] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to
human communication: Understanding and sharing. Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.
[138] DeVito, J. (1986). The communication handbook: A
dictionary. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
[139] Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
[140] Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th
ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
[141] Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
[142] Samovar, L., Porter, R., & Stefani, L. (1998). Communication
between cultures (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
[143] Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural
communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
[144] Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. New
York, NY: Doubleday.
[145] Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making
connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Additional
Resources
Oral
communication skill is key to success in politics.
15.3 Nonverbal Delivery
The most
important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said.
—Peter
F. Drucker
But
behavior in the human being is sometimes a defense, a way of concealing motives
and thoughts.
—Abraham
Maslow
Electric
communication will never be a substitute for the face of someone who with their
soul encourages another person to be brave and true.
—Charles
Dickens
The most
important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said.
—Peter
F. Drucker
But
behavior in the human being is sometimes a defense, a way of concealing motives
and thoughts.
—Abraham
Maslow
Electric
communication will never be a substitute for the face of someone who with their
soul encourages another person to be brave and true.
—Charles
Dickens
15.4 Principles
of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal
Communication Is Fluid
Chances are you have had many experiences where words were
misunderstood, or where the meaning of words was unclear. When it comes to
nonverbal communication, meaning is even harder to discern. We can sometimes
tell what people are communicating through their nonverbal communication, but
there is no foolproof “dictionary” of how to interpret nonverbal messages. Nonverbal
communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of
words. It can include gestures and facial expressions, tone of voice, timing,
and posture and where you stand as you communicate. It can help or hinder the
clear understanding of your message, but it doesn’t reveal (and can even mask)
what you are really thinking. Nonverbal communication is far from simple, and
its complexity makes our study and our understanding a worthy but challenging
goal.
Where does a wink start and a nod end? Nonverbal communication
involves the entire body, the space it occupies and dominates, the time it
interacts, and not only what is not said, but how it is not said. Confused? Try
to focus on just one element of nonverbal communication and it will soon get
lost among all the other stimuli. Let’s consider eye contact. What does it mean
by itself without context, chin position, or eyebrows to flag interest or
signal a threat? Nonverbal action flows almost seamlessly from one to the next,
making it a challenge to interpret one element, or even a series of elements.
We perceive time as linear, flowing along in a straight line. We
did one task, we’re doing another task now, and we are planning on doing
something else all the time. Sometimes we place more emphasis on the future, or
the past, forgetting that we are actually living in the present moment whether
we focus on “the now” or not. Nonverbal communication is always in motion, as
long as we are, and is never the same twice.
Nonverbal communication is irreversible. In written communication,
you can write a clarification, correction, or retraction. While it never makes
the original statement go completely away, it does allow for correction. Unlike
written communication, oral communication may allow “do-overs” on the spot: you
can explain and restate, hoping to clarify your point. You can also dig the
hole you are in just a little bit deeper. The old sayings “when you find
yourself in a hole, stop digging” and “open mouth, insert foot” can sometimes
apply to oral communications. We’ve all said something we would give anything
to take back, but we all know we can’t. Oral communication, like written
communication, allows for some correction, but it still doesn’t erase the
original message or its impact.
Nonverbal communication takes it one step further. You can’t
separate one nonverbal action from the context of all the other verbal and
nonverbal communication acts, and you can’t take it back. In a speech,
nonverbal communication is continuous in the sense that it is always occurring,
and because it is so fluid, it can be hard to determine where one nonverbal
message starts and another stops. Words can be easily identified and isolated,
but if we try to single out a speaker’s gestures, smile, or stance without
looking at how they all come together in context, we may miss the point and
draw the wrong conclusion. You need to be conscious of this aspect of public
speaking because, to quote another old saying, “Actions speak louder than
words.” This is true in the sense that people often pay more attention to your
nonverbal expressions more than your words. As a result, nonverbal
communication is a powerful way to contribute to (or detract from) your success
in communicating your message to the audience.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fast
Let’s pretend you are at your computer at work. You see that an
e-mail has arrived, but you are right in the middle of tallying a spreadsheet
whose numbers just don’t add up. You see that the e-mail is from a coworker and
you click on it. The subject line reads “pink slips.” You could interpret this
to mean a suggestion for a Halloween costume, or a challenge to race for each
other’s car ownership, but in the context of the workplace you may assume it
means layoffs. Your emotional response is immediate. If the author of the e-mail
could see your face, they would know that your response was one of disbelief
and frustration, even anger, all via your nonverbal communication. Yes, when a
tree falls in the forest it makes a sound, even if no one is there to hear it.
In the same way, you express yourself via nonverbal communication all the time
without much conscious thought at all. You may think about how to share the
news with your partner, and try to display a smile and a sense of calm when you
feel like anything but smiling. Nonverbal communication gives our thoughts and
feelings away before we are even aware of what we are thinking or how we feel.
People may see and hear more than you ever anticipated. Your nonverbal
communication includes both intentional and unintentional messages, but since
it all happens so fast, the unintentional ones can contradict what you know you
are supposed to say or how you are supposed to react.
Nonverbal
Communication Can Add to or Replace Verbal Communication
People tend to pay more attention to how you say it than what you
actually say. In presenting a speech this is particularly true. We communicate
nonverbally more than we engage in verbal communication, and often use
nonverbal expressions to add to, or even replace, words we might otherwise say.
We use a nonverbal gesture called an illustrator to communicate our
message effectively and reinforce our point. Your coworker Andrew may ask you,
“Barney’s Bar after work?” as he walks by, and you simply nod and say “yeah.”
Andrew may respond with a nonverbal gesture, called an emblem, by
signaling with the “OK” sign as he walks away. In addition to illustrators or
emblematic nonverbal communication, we also use regulators.
“Regulators are nonverbal messages which control, maintain
or discourage interaction.”[146] For example, if someone is telling you a
message that is confusing or upsetting, you may hold up your hand, a commonly
recognized regulator that asks the speaker to stop talking. Let’s say you are
in a meeting presenting a speech that introduces your company’s latest product.
If your audience members nod their heads in agreement on important points and
maintain good eye contact, it is a good sign. Nonverbally, they are using
regulators encouraging you to continue with your presentation. In contrast, if
they look away, tap their feet, and begin drawing in the margins of their
notebook, these are regulators suggesting that you better think of a way to
regain their interest or else wrap up your presentation quickly.
“Affect displays are nonverbal communication that expresses
emotions or feelings.”[147] An affect display that might accompany holding up
your hand for silence would be to frown and shake your head from side to side.
When you and Andrew are at Barney’s Bar, smiling and waving at coworkers who
arrive lets them know where you are seated and welcomes them.
Combing
your hair would be an example of a purposeful action, unlike a self-adaptive
behavior.
“Adaptors are displays of nonverbal communication that help
you adapt to your environment and each context, helping you feel comfortable
and secure.”[148] A self adaptor involves you meeting your need for
security, by playing with your hair for example, by adapting something about
yourself in way for which it was not designed or for no apparent purpose.
Combing your hair would be an example of a purposeful action, unlike a
self-adaptive behavior. An object-adaptor involves the use of an object
in a way for which it was not designed. You may see audience members tapping
their pencils, chewing on them, or playing with them, while ignoring you and
your presentation. Or perhaps someone pulls out a comb and repeatedly rubs a
thumbnail against the comb’s teeth. They are using the comb or the pencil in a
way other than its intended design, an object-adaptor that communicates a lack
of engagement or enthusiasm in your speech.
Intentional
nonverbal communication can complement, repeat, replace, mask, or contradict
what we say. When Andrew invited you to Barney’s, you said, “Yeah” and nodded,
complementing and repeating the message. You could have simply nodded,
effectively replacing the “yes” with a nonverbal response. You could also have
decided to say no, but did not want to hurt Andrew’s feelings. Shaking your
head “no” while pointing to your watch, communicating work and time issues, may
mask your real thoughts or feelings. Masking involves the substitution of
appropriate nonverbal communication for nonverbal communication you may want to
display.[149] Finally, nonverbal messages that conflict with verbal
communication can confuse the listener.
Nonverbal
Communication Is Universal
Consider the many contexts in which interaction occurs during your
day. In the morning, at work, after work, at home, with friends, with family,
and our list could go on for quite awhile. Now consider the differences in
nonverbal communication across these many contexts. When you are at work, do
you jump up and down and say whatever you want? Why or why not? You may not
engage in that behavior because of expectations at work, but the fact remains
that from the moment you wake until you sleep, you are surrounded by nonverbal
communication. If you had been born in a different country, to different
parents, and perhaps as a member of the opposite sex, your whole world would be
quite different. Yet nonverbal communication would remain a universal constant.
It may not look the same, or get used in the same way, but it will still be
nonverbal communication in its many functions and displays.
Nonverbal
Communication Is Confusing and Contextual
Nonverbal communication can be confusing. We need contextual clues
to help us understand, or begin to understand, what a movement, gesture, or
lack of display means. Then we have to figure it all out based on our prior
knowledge (or lack thereof) of the person and hope to get it right. Talk about
a challenge. Nonverbal communication is everywhere, and we all use it, but that
doesn’t make it simple or independent of when, where, why, or how we
communicate.
Nonverbal
Communication Can Be Intentional or Unintentional
Suppose you are working as a salesclerk in retail store, and a
customer communicated frustration to you. Would the nonverbal aspects of your
response be intentional or unintentional? Your job is to be pleasant and
courteous at all times, yet your wrinkled eyebrows or wide eyes may have been
unintentional. They clearly communicate your negative feelings at that moment.
Restating your wish to be helpful and displaying nonverbal gestures may
communicate “no big deal,” but the stress of the moment is still “written” on
your face. Can we tell when people are intentionally or unintentionally
communicating nonverbally? Ask ten people this question and compare their
responses. You may be surprised. It is clearly a challenge to understand nonverbal
communication in action. We often assign intentional motives to nonverbal
communication when in fact their display is unintentional, and often hard to
interpret.
Nonverbal
Messages Communicate Feelings and Attitudes
Steven Beebe, Susan Beebe, and Mark Redmond offer us three
additional principals of interpersonal nonverbal communication that serves our
discussion. One is that you often react faster than you think. Your nonverbal
responses communicate your initial reaction before you can process it through
language or formulate an appropriate response. If your appropriate, spoken
response doesn’t match your nonverbal reaction, you may give away your true
feelings and attitudes.[150] Albert Mehrabian asserts that we rarely
communicate emotional messages through the spoken word. According to Mehrabian,
93 percent of the time we communicate our emotions nonverbally, with at least
55 percent associated with facial gestures. Vocal cues, body position and
movement, and normative space between speaker and receiver can also be clues to
feelings and attitudes.[151]
Is your
first emotional response always an accurate and true representation of your
feelings and attitudes, or does your emotional response change across time? We
are all changing all the time, and sometimes a moment of frustration or a flash
of anger can signal to the receiver a feeling or emotion that existed for a
moment, but has since passed. Their response to your communication will be
based on that perception, even though you might already be over the issue. This
is where the spoken word serves us well. You may need to articulate clearly
that you were frustrated, but not anymore. The words spoken out loud can serve
to clarify and invite additional discussion.
We
Believe Nonverbal Communication More than Verbal
Building on the example of responding to a situation with facial
gestures associated with frustration before you even have time to think of an
appropriate verbal response, let’s ask the question: what would you believe
someone’s actions or their words? According to William Seiler and Melissa
Beall, most people tend to believe the nonverbal message over the verbal
message. People will often answer that “actions speak louder than words” and
place a disproportionate emphasis on the nonverbal response.[152] Humans aren’t
logical all the time, and they do experience feelings and attitudes that
change. Still, we place more confidence in nonverbal communication,
particularly when it comes to lying behaviors. According to Miron Zuckerman,
Bella DePaulo, and Robert Rosenthal, there are several behaviors
people often display when they are being deceptive:[153]
Reduction in eye contact while engaged in a conversation
Awkward pauses in conversation
Higher pitch in voice
Deliberate pronunciation and articulation of words
Increased delay in response time to a question
Increased body movements like changes in posture
Decreased smiling
Decreased rate of speech
If you notice one of more of the behaviors, you may want to take a
closer look. Over time we learn people’s patterns of speech and behavior, and
form a set of expectations. Variation from their established patterns, combined
with the clues above, can serve to alert you to the possibility that something
deserves closer attention. Our nonverbal responses have a connection to our
physiological responses to stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin
conductivity. Polygraph machines (popularly referred to as “lie detectors”)
focus on these physiological responses and demonstrate anomalies, or variations.
While movies and TV crime shows may make polygraphs look foolproof, there is
significant debate about whether they measure dishonesty with any degree of
accuracy.
Can you train yourself to detect lies? It is unlikely. Our purpose
in studying nonverbal communication is not to uncover dishonesty in others, but
rather to help you understand how to use the nonverbal aspects of communication
to increase understanding.
Nonverbal
Communication Is Key in the Speaker/Audience Relationship
When we first see each other, before anyone says a word, we are
already sizing each other up. Within the first few seconds we have made
judgments about each other based on what we wear, our physical characteristics,
even our posture. Are these judgments accurate? That is hard to know without
context, but we can say that nonverbal communication certainly affects first
impressions, for better or worse. When a speaker and the audience first meet,
nonverbal communication in terms of space, dress, and even personal characteristics
can contribute to assumed expectations. The expectations might not be accurate
or even fair, but it is important to recognize that they will be present. There
is truth in the saying, “You never get a second chance to make a first
impression.” Since beginnings are fragile times, your attention to aspects you
can control, both verbal and nonverbal, will help contribute to
the first step of forming a relationship with your audience. Your eye contact
with audience members, use of space, and degree of formality will continue to
contribute to that relationship. As a speaker, your nonverbal communication is
part of the message and can contribute to, or detract from, your overall goals.
By being aware of them, and practicing with a live audience, you can learn to
be more aware and in control.
Key
Takeaways
Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message
without the use of words; it relates to the dynamic process of communication,
the perception process and listening, and verbal communication. Nonverbal
communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing, and contextual. It can
add to or replace verbal communication and can be intentional or unintentional.
Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to
believe nonverbal messages more than verbal ones.
Exercises
1. Does
it limit or enhance our understanding of communication to view nonverbal
communication as that which is not verbal communication? Explain your answer
and discuss with the class.
2.
Choose a television personality you admire. What do you like about this person?
Watch several minutes of this person with the sound turned off, and make notes
of the nonverbal expressions you observe. Turn the sound back on and make notes
of their tone of voice, timing, and other audible expressions. Discuss your
results with a classmate.
3. Find
a program that focuses on micro expressions and write a brief summary of how
they play a role in the program. Share and compare with classmates.
4.
Create a survey that addresses the issue of which people trust more, nonverbal
or verbal messages. Ask an equal number of men and women and compare your
results with those of your classmates.
5.
Search for information on the reliability and admissibility of results from
polygraph (lie detector) tests. Share your findings with classmates.
6. See
how long and how much you can get done during the day without the use of verbal
messages.
[146] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[147] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p.
77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[148] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p.
77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[149] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p.
77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[150] Beebe, S. [Steven], Beebe, S. [Susan], & Redmond, M.
(2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[151] Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication.
Chicago, IL: Aldine Atherton.
[152] Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making
connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[153] Zuckerman, M., DePaulo, B., & Rosenthal, R.
(1981). Verbal and nonverbal communication of deception. Advances
in Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 1–59.
15.5 Types
of Nonverbal Communication
Learning
Objective
1.
Describe the similarities and differences among eight general types of
nonverbal communication.
Now that
we have discussed the general principles that apply to nonverbal communication,
let’s examine eight types of nonverbal communication to further understand this
challenging aspect of communication:
1. Space
2. Time
3.
Physical characteristics
4. Body
movements
5. Touch
6.
Paralanguage
7.
Artifacts
8.
Environment
Space
When we discuss space in a nonverbal context, we mean the space
between objects and people. Space is often associated with social rank and is
an important part of business communication. Who gets the corner office? Why is
the head of the table important and who gets to sit there? People from diverse
cultures may have different normative space expectations. If you are from a
large urban area, having people stand close to you may be normal. If you are
from a rural area or a culture where people expect more space, someone may be
standing “too close” for comfort and not know it.
Edward T. Hall, serving in the European and South Pacific Regions
in the Corps of Engineers during World War II, traveled around the globe. As he
moved from one place to another, he noticed that people in different countries
kept different distances from each other. In France, they stood closer to each
other than they did in England. Hall wondered why that was and began to study
what he called proxemics, or the study of the human use of space and
distance in communication.[154]
In The Hidden Dimension, he indicated there are two main
aspects of space: territory and personal space. Hall drew on anthropology to
address the concepts of dominance and submission, and noted that the more
powerful person often claims more space. This plays an important role in modern
society, from who gets the corner office to how we negotiate space between
vehicles. Road rage is increasingly common where overcrowding occurs, and as
more vehicles occupy the same roads, tensions over space are predictable.
Territory is related to control. As a way of establishing control
over your own room, maybe you painted it your favorite color, or put up posters
that represent your interests or things you consider unique about yourself. Families
or households often mark their space by putting up fences or walls around their
houses. This sense of a right to control your space is implicit in territory. Territory
means the space you claim as your own, are responsible for, or are willing
to defend. The second aspect Hall highlights is personal space, or the
“bubble” of space surrounding each individual. As you walk down a flight of
stairs, which side do you choose? We may choose the right side because we’ve
learned that is what is expected, and people coming up the same stair choose
their right. The right choice insures that personal space is not compromised.
But what happens when some comes up the wrong side? They violate the understood
rules of movement and often correct themselves. But what happens if they don’t
change lanes as people move up and down the stairs? They may get dirty looks or
even get bumped as people in the crowd handle the invasion of “their” space.
There are no lane markers, and bubbles of space around each person move with them,
allowing for the possibility of collision.
We recognize the basic need for personal space, but the normative
expectations for space vary greatly by culture. You may perceive that in your
home people sleep one to each bed, but in many cultures people sleep two or
more to a bed and it is considered normal. If you were to share that bed, you
might feel uncomfortable, while someone raised with group sleeping norms might
feel uncomfortable sleeping alone. From where you stand in an aerobics class in
relation to others, to where you place your book bag in class, your personal
expectations of space are often at variance with others.
As the context of a staircase has norms for nonverbal behavior, so
does the public speaking context. In North America, eye contact with the
audience is expected. Big movements and gestures are not generally expected and
can be distracting. The speaker occupies a space on the “stage,” even if it’s
in front of the class. When you occupy that space, the audience will expect to
behave in certain ways. If you talk to the screen behind you while displaying a
PowerPoint presentation, the audience may perceive that you are not paying
attention to them. Speakers are expected to pay attention to, and interact
with, the audience, even if in the feedback is primarily nonverbal.
Your
movements should coordinate with the tone, rhythm, and content of your speech.
Pacing back and forth, keeping your hands in your pockets, or crossing your
arms may communicate nervousness, or even defensiveness, and detract from your
speech.
Figure
15-1 Space: Four Main Categories of Distance
As a general rule, try to act naturally, as if you were telling a
friend a story, so that your body will relax and your nonverbal gestures will
come more naturally. Practice is key to your level of comfort; the more
practice you get, the more comfortable and less intimidating it will seem to
you. Hall articulated four main categories of distance used in communication as
shown in Figure 11.2, “Space: Four
Time
Do you know what time it is? How aware you are of time varies by
culture and normative expectations of adherence (or ignorance) of time. Some
people, and the communities and cultures they represent, are very
time-oriented. The Euro Railways trains in Germany are famous for departing and
arriving according to the schedule. In contrast, if you take the train in
Argentina, you’ll find that the schedule is more of an approximation of when
the train will leave or arrive. “Time is money” is a common saying across many
cultures, and reveals a high value for time. In social contexts, it often
reveals social status and power. Who are you willing to wait for? A doctor for
an office visit when you are sick? A potential employer for a job interview?
Your significant other or children? Sometimes we get impatient, and our
impatience underscores our value for time. When you give a presentation, does
your audience have to wait for you? Time is a relevant factor of the
communication process in your speech. The best way to show your audience
respect is to honor the time expectation associated with your speech. Always
try to stop speaking before the audience stops listening; if the audience
perceives that you have “gone over time,” they will be less willing to listen.
This in turn will have a negative impact on your ability to communicate your
message.
Suppose you are presenting a speech that has three main points.
Your audience expects you to regulate the time and attention to each point, but
if you spend all your time on the first two points and rush through the third,
your speech won’t be balanced and will lose rhythm. The speaker occupies a
position of some power, but it is the audience that gives them that position.
By displaying respect and maintaining balance, you will move through your
points more effectively.
Chronemics is the study of how we refer to and
perceive time. Tom Bruneau at Radford University has spent a lifetime
investigating how time interacts in communication and culture.[156],[157],[158]
As he notes, across Western society, time is often considered the equivalent of
money. The value of speed is highly prized in some societies.[159] In others,
there is a great respect for slowing down and taking a long-term view of time.
When you order a meal at a fast food restaurant, what are your expectations for
how long you will have to wait? When you order a pizza online for delivery,
when do you expect it will arrive? If you order cable service for your home,
when do you expect it might be delivered?
In the first case, you
might measure the delivery of a hamburger in a matter of seconds or minutes,
and perhaps thirty minutes for pizza delivery, but you may measure the time
from your order to working cable in days or even weeks. You may even have to be
at your home from 8 a.m. to noon, waiting for its installation. The
expectations vary by context, and we often grow frustrated in a time-sensitive
culture when the delivery does not match our expectations. In the same way, how
long should it take to respond to a customer’s request for assistance or
information? If they call on the phone, how long should they be on hold? How
soon should they expect a response to an e-mail? As a skilled business
communicator, you will know to anticipate normative expectations and do your
best to meet those expectations more quickly than anticipated. Your prompt
reply or offer of help in response to a request, even if you cannot solve the
issue on the spot, is often regarded positively, contributing to the formation
of positive
communication interactions.
Across cultures the value of time may vary. Some Mexican American
friends may invite you to a barbecue at 8 p.m., but when you arrive you are the
first guest, because it is understood that the gathering actually doesn’t start
until after 9 p.m. Similarly in France, an 8 p.m. party invitation would be
understood to indicate you should arrive around 8:30, but in Sweden 8 p.m.
means 8 p.m., and latecomers may not be welcome. Some Native Americans,
particularly elders, speak in well-measured phrases and take long pauses
between phrases. They do not hurry their speech or compete for their turn,
knowing no one will interrupt them.[160] Some Orthodox Jews observe religious
days when they do not work, cook, drive, or use electricity. People around the
world have different ways of expressing value for time.
Physical
Characteristics
You didn’t choose your birth, your eye color, the natural color of
your hair, or your height, but people spend millions every year trying to
change their physical characteristics. You can get colored contacts; dye your
hair; and if you are shorter than you’d like to be, buy shoes to raise your
stature a couple of inches. You won’t be able to change your birth, and no
matter how much you stoop to appear shorter, you won’t change your height until
time and age gradually makes itself apparent. If you are tall, you might find
the correct shoe size, pant length, or even the length of mattress a challenge,
but there are rewards. Have you ever heard that taller people get paid
more?[161] There is some truth to that idea. There is also some truth to the
notion that people prefer symmetrical faces (where both sides are equal) over
asymmetrical faces (with unequal sides; like a crooked nose or having one eye
or ear slightly higher than the other).[162]
We often make judgments about a person’s personality or behavior
based on physical characteristics, and researchers are quick to note that those
judgments are often inaccurate.[163],[164] Regardless of your eye or hair
color, or even how tall you are, being comfortable with yourself is an
important part of your presentation. Act naturally and consider aspects of your
presentation you can control in order to maximize a positive image for the
audience.
Body
Movements
The study of body movements, called kinesics, is key to
understanding nonverbal communication. Since your actions will significantly
contribute to the effectiveness of your business interactions, let’s examine
four distinct ways body movements that complement, repeat, regulate, or replace
your verbal messages. Body movements can complement the verbal message by
reinforcing the main idea. For example, you may be providing an orientation
presentation to a customer about a software program. As you say, “Click on this
tab,” you may also initiate that action. Your verbal and nonverbal messages
reinforce each other. You can also reinforce the message by repeating it. If
you first say, “Click on the tab,” and then motion with your hand to the right,
indicating that the customer should move the cursor arrow with the mouse
to the tab, your repetition can help the listener understand the
message.
In addition to repeating your message, body movements can also
regulate conversations. Nodding your head to indicate that you are listening
may encourage the customer to continue asking questions. Holding your hand up,
palm out, may signal them to stop and provide a pause where you can start to
answer. Body movements also substitute or replace verbal messages. Ekman and
Friesen found that facial features communicate to others our feelings, but our
body movements often reveal how intensely we experience those feelings.[165]
For example, if the customer makes a face of frustration while trying to use
the software program, they may need assistance. If they push away from the
computer and separate themselves physically from interacting with it, they may
be extremely frustrated. Learning to gauge feelings and their intensity as
expressed by customers takes time and patience, and your attention to them will
improve your ability to facilitate positive interactions.
Touch
Touch in
communication interaction is called haptics, and William Seiler and
Meliss Beall[166] identify five distinct types of touch, from impersonal to
intimate.
Table
15.2: Types of Touch Term Definition
1.
Functional-
Professional
Touch
Medical
examination, physical therapy, sports coach, music teacher
2.
Social-Polite
Touch
Handshake
3.
Friendship-
Warmth
Touch Hug
4.
Love-Intimacy
Touch
Kiss
between family members or romantic partners
5.
Sexual-Arousal
Touch
Sexual caressing and intercourse
Before giving your presentation, you may interact with people by
shaking hands and making casual conversation. This interaction can help
establish trust before you take the stage. While speaking in public we do not
often touch people in the audience, but we do interact with visual aids, our
note cards, and other objects. How we handle them can communicate our comfort
level. It’s always a good idea to practice using the technology, visual aids, or
note cards you will use in a speech during a practice session. Using the
technology correctly by clicking the right button on the mouse or pressing the
right switch on the overhead projector can contribute to your credibility.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is the exception to the definition of nonverbal
communication. You may recall that we defined nonverbal communication as not
involving words, but paralanguage exists when we are speaking, using words. Paralanguage
involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influence meaning,
including tone, intensity, pausing, and even silence.
Perhaps you’ve also heard of a pregnant pause, a silence
between verbal messages that is full of meaning. The meaning itself may be hard
to understand or decipher, but it is there nonetheless. For example, your
coworker Jan comes back from a sales meeting speechless and with a ghost-white
complexion. You may ask if the meeting went all right. “Well, ahh…” may be the
only response you get. The pause speaks volumes. Something happened, though you
may not know what. It could be personal if Jan’s report was not well received,
or it could be more systemic, like the news that sales figures are off by 40
percent and pink slips may not be far behind.
Silence
or vocal pauses can communicate hesitation, indicate the need to gather
thought, or serve as a sign of respect. Keith Basso quotes an anonymous source
as stating, “It is not the case that a man who is silent says nothing.”[167]
Sometimes we learn just as much, or even more, from what a person does not say
as what they do say. In addition, both Basso and Susan Philips found that
traditional speech among Native Americans places a special emphasis on
silence.[168]
15.7 Positions
on the Stage: Visual Aids
Learning
Objective
1. Demonstrate
how to use visual.
Learning
Objective
1.
Demonstrate how to use visual aids effectively in your presentation.
Almost
all presentations can be enhanced by the effective use of visual aids. These
can include handouts, overhead transparencies, and drawings on the whiteboard,
PowerPoint slides, and many other types of props. Visual aids are an important
nonverbal aspect of your speech that you can control. Once you have chosen a
topic, you need to consider how you are going to show your audience what you
are talking about.
Have you ever asked for driving directions and not understood
someone’s response? Did the person say, “Turn right at Sam’s Grocery Store, the
new one” or “I think you will turn at the second light, but it might be the
third one”? Chances are that unless you know the town well or have a map handy,
the visual cue of a grocery store or a traffic light might be insufficient to
let you know where to turn. Your audience experiences the same frustration, or
sense of accomplishment, when they get lost or find their way during your
speech. Consider how you can express yourself visually, providing common
references, illustrations, and images that lead the audience to understand your
point or issue.
Visual aids accomplish several goals: Make your speech more
interesting Enhance your credibility as a speaker Serve as guides to
transitions, helping the audience stay on track Communicate complex or
intriguing information in a short period of time Reinforce your verbal message
Help the audience use and retain the information
Purpose,
Emphasis, Support, and Clarity
When you look at your own presentation from an audience member’s
perspective, you might consider how to distinguish the main points from the
rest of the information. You might also consider the relationships being
presented between ideas or concepts, or how other aspects of the presentation
can complement the oral message.
Your audience naturally will want to know why you are presenting
the visual aid. The purpose for each visual aid should be clear, and almost
speak for itself. If you can’t quickly grasp the purpose of a visual aid in a
speech, you have to honestly consider whether it should be used in the first
place. Visual aids can significantly develop the message of a speech, but they
must be used for a specific purpose the audience can easily recognize. Perhaps
you want to highlight a trend between two related issues, such as socioeconomic
status and educational attainment. A line graph might show effectively how, as
socioeconomic status rises, educational attainment also rises. This use of a
visual aid can provide emphasis, effectively highlighting key words, ideas, or
relationships for the audience.
Visual aids can also provide necessary support for your position.
Audience members may question your assertion of the relationship between
socioeconomic status and educational attainment. To support your argument, you
might include on the slide, “According to the U.S.
Department of Education Study no. 12345,” or even use an image of
the Department of Education Web page projected on a large screen. You might
consider showing similar studies in graphic form, illustrating similarities
across a wide range of research.
Visual
aids provide necessary support for your position, illustrate relationships, and
demonstrate trends.
Clarity is key in the use of visual aids. One way to improve
clarity is to limit the number of words on a PowerPoint slide. No more than ten
words per slide, with a font large enough to be read at the back of the room or
auditorium, is a good rule of thumb. Key images that have a clear relationship
to the verbal message can also improve clarity. You may also choose to
illustrate the same data successively in two distinct formats, perhaps a line
graph followed by two pie graphs. Your central goal is to ensure your visual
aid is clear.
Methods
and Materials
If you have been asked to give a presentation on a new product
idea that a team within your organization is considering, how might you
approach the challenge? You may consider a chronological organization pattern,
starting with background, current market, and a trend analysis of what is to
come—fair enough, but how will you make it vivid for your audience? How to
represent information visually is a significant challenge, and you have several
options.
You may choose to use a chart or diagram to show a timeline
of events to date, from the first meeting about the proposed product to the
results from the latest focus group. This timeline may work for you, but let’s
say you would like to get into the actual decision-making process that
motivated your team to design the product with specific features in the first
place. You may decide to use decision trees (or tree diagrams) showing the
variables and products in place at the beginning of your discussions, and how
each decision led to the next, bringing you to the decision-making point where
you are today.
Visual
aids make it vivid for your audience.
To complement this comprehensive guide and help make a transition
to current content areas of questions, you may use a bar or pie graph to show
the percentage of competing products in the market. If you have access to the
Internet and a projector, you may use a topographical map showing a
three-dimensional rendering of the local areas most likely to find your product
attractive. If actual hills and valleys have nothing to do with your project,
you can still represent the data you have collected in three dimensions. Then
you may show a comparable graph illustrating the distribution of products and
their relative degree of market penetration
Finally, you may move to the issue of results, and present the
audience with a model of your product and one from a competitor, asking which
they prefer. The object may be just the visual aid you need to make your point
and reinforce the residual message. When we can see, feel, touch, or be in
close proximity to an object it often has a greater impact. In a world of
digital images and special effects, objects presented in real time can still
make a positive effect on the audience.
Additional visual aids you may choose include—but are not limited
to—sound and music, video, and even yourself. If your speech is about how to
use the product, your demonstration may just be the best visual aid. You will
want to give some thought to how to portray your chart, graph, or object when
it’s time to use your visual aids. The chalk or white board is common way of
presenting visual aids, but it can get messy. Your instructor may write key words
or diagrams on the boards while discussing a textbook chapter, but can you read
his or her writing? The same lesson holds true for you. If you are going to use
a white board and have a series of words on it, write them out clearly before
you start your presentation.
Flip charts on a pedestal can also serve to show a series of steps
or break a chart down into its basic components. A poster board is another
common way of organizing your visual aids before a speech, but given its often
one-time use, it is losing out to the computer screen. It is, however, portable
and allows you a large “blank page” with which to express your ideas. Handouts
may also serve to communicate complex or detailed information to the audience,
but be careful never to break handout rule number one: never give handouts to
the audience at the beginning of your speech. Where do you want the audience to
look—at you or at the handout? Many novice speakers might be tempted to say the
handout, but you will no doubt recognize how that diverts and divides the
audience’s attention. People will listen to the words from the handout in their
minds and tune you out.
They will read at their own pace and have questions. They may even
be impolite enough to use them as fans or paper airplanes. Handouts can be your
worst enemy. If you need to use one, state at the beginning of the speech that
you will be providing one at the conclusion of your presentation. This will
alleviate the audience’s worry about capturing all your content by taking
notes, and keep their attention focused on you while you speak. Transparencies
and slides have been replaced by computer-generated slide show programs like
PowerPoint by Microsoft, which we will discuss in greater detail later in this
section. These programs can be very helpful in presenting visual information,
but because computers and projectors sometimes break down and fail to work as
planned, you need a plan B. You may need a poster board, or to write on the
whiteboard or to have a handout in reserve, but a Plan B is always a good idea
when it comes to presentations that integrate technology. You may arrive at
your destination and find the equipment is no longer available, is incompatible
with your media storage device,
or is simply not working, but the show must go on.
Video clips, such as those you might find on YouTube, can also be
effective visual aids. However, as with handouts, there is one concern: You
don’t want the audience to want to watch the video more than they want to tune
into your presentation. How do you prevent this? Keep the clip short and make
sure it reinforces the central message of your presentation. Always stop
speaking before the audience stops listening, and the same holds true for the
mesmerizing force of moving images on a screen. People are naturally attracted
to them and will get “sucked into” your video example rather quickly. Be a good
editor, introduce the clip and state what will happen out loud, point out a key
aspect of it to the audience while it plays (overlap), and then make a clear
transitional statement as you turn it off. Transitions are often the hardest
part of any speech as the audience can get off track, and video clips are one
of the most challenging visual aids you can choose because of their power to
attract attention. Use that power wisely.
Preparing
Visual Aids
Get started early so that you have time to create or research
visual aids that will truly support your presentation, not just provide
“fluff.” Make sure you use a font or image large enough to be legible for those
in the back of the room, and that you actually test your visual aids before the
day of your presentation. Ask a friend to stand at the back of the room and
read or interpret your visual aid. If you are using computer-generated slides,
try them out in a practice setting, not just on your computer screen. The
slides will look different when projected. Allow time for revision based on
what you learn.
Your
visual aids should meet the following criteria:
Big. They
should be legible for everyone, and should be “back row certified.”
Clear. Your
audience should “get it” the first time they see it.
Simple. They
should serve to simplify the concepts they illustrate.
Consistent. They
should reinforce continuity by using the same visual style.
Using
Visual Aids:
Here are three general guidelines to follow when using visual
aids.[172] Here are some dos and don’ts:
1. Do make a clear connection between your words and the visual
aid for the audience.
2. Do not distract the audience with your visual aid, blocking their
view of you or adjusting the visual aid repeatedly while trying to speak.
3. Do speak to your audience—not to the whiteboard, the video, or
other visual aids. The timing of your presentation, and of your visual aids,
can also have good or bad consequences. According to a popular joke, a good way
to get your boss to approve just about anything is to schedule a meeting after
lunch, turn the lights down, and present some boring PowerPoint slides. While
the idea of a drowsy boss signing off on a harebrained project is amusing, in
reality you will want to use visual aids not as a sleeping potion but as a
strategy to keep your presentation lively and interesting.
Becoming proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice,
and the more you practice before your speech, the more comfortable you will be
with your visual aids and the role they serve in illustrating your points.
Planning ahead before speaking will help, but when it comes time to actually
give your speech, make sure they work for the audience as they should. Speaking
to a visual aid (or reading it with your back to the audience) is not an
effective strategy. You should know your material well enough that you refer to
a visual aid, not rely on it.
Using
PowerPoint as a Visual Aid
PowerPoint and similar visual representation programs can be an
effective tool to help audiences remember your message, but they can also be an
annoying distraction to your speech. How you prepare your slides and use the
tool will determine your effectiveness. PowerPoint is a slideware program that
you have no doubt seen used in class, presentation at work, or perhaps used
yourself to support a presentation. PowerPoint and similar slide ware programs
provide templates for creating electronic slides to present visual information
to the audience, reinforcing the verbal message. You’ll be able to import, or
cut and paste, words from text files, images, or video clips to create slides
to represent your ideas. You can even incorporate Web links. When using any
software program, it’s always a good idea to experiment with it long before you
intend to use it, explore its many options and functions, and see how it can be
an effective tool for you.
15.8 Video
Clips:
PowerPoint
slides can connect words with images.
Video link: http://blip.tv/play/sWCBtvEhAg
At first, you might be overwhelmed by the possibilities, and you might be
tempted to use all the bells, whistles, and sound effects, not to mention the
tumbling, flying, and animated graphics. If used wisely, a dissolve or key
transition can be like a well-executed scene from a major motion picture film
and lead your audience to the next point. But if used indiscriminately, it can
annoy the audience to the point where they cringe in anticipation of the sound
effect at the start of each slide. This danger is inherent in the tool, but you
are in charge of it and can make wise choices that enhance the understanding
and retention of your information.
The first point to consider is what is the most important visual
aid? The answer is you, the speaker. You will facilitate the discussion, give
life to the information, and help the audience correlate the content to your
goal or purpose. You don’t want to be in a position where the PowerPoint
presentation is the main focus and you are on the side of the stage, simply
helping the audience follow along. It should support you in your presentation,
rather than the other way around. Just as there is a number one rule for
handouts, there is also one for PowerPoints: do not use PowerPoints as a
read-aloud script for your speech. The PowerPoints should amplify and
illustrate your main points, not reproduce everything you are going to say.
Your pictures are the second area of emphasis you’ll want to
consider. The tool will allow you to show graphs, charts and illustrate
relationships that words may only approach in terms of communication, but your
verbal support of the visual images will make all the difference. Dense
pictures or complicated graphics will confuse more than clarify. Choose clear
images that have an immediate connection to both your content and the audience,
tailored to their specific needs. After images, consider only key words that
can be easily read to accompany your pictures. The fewer words the better: try
to keep each slide to a total word count of less than ten words. Do not use
full sentences. Using key words provides support for your verbal discussion,
guiding you as well as your audience. The key words can serve as signposts or
signal words
related to key ideas.
A natural question at this point is, “How do I communicate complex
information simply?” The answer comes with several options. The visual
representation on the screen is for support and illustration. Should you need to
communicate more technical, complex, or in-depth information in a visual way,
consider preparing a handout to distribute at the conclusion of your speech.
You may also consider using a printout of your slide show with a “notes”
section, but if you distribute it at the beginning of your speech, you run the
risk of turning your presentation into a guided reading exercise and possibly
distracting or losing members of the audience. Everyone reads at a different
pace and takes notes in their own way. You don’t want to be in the position of
going back and forth between slides to help people follow along.
Another point to consider is how you want to use the tool to
support your speech and how your audience will interpret its presentation. Most
audiences wouldn’t want to read a page of text—as you might see in this book—on
the big screen. They’ll be far more likely to glance at the screen and assess
the information you present in relation to your discussion. Therefore, it is
key to consider one main idea, relationship, or point per slide. The use of the
tool should be guided with the idea that its presentation is for the audience’s
benefit, not yours. People often understand pictures and images more quickly
and easily than text, and you can use this to your advantage, using the
knowledge that a picture is worth a thousand words.
Use of
Color
People love color, and understandably your audience will
appreciate the visual stimulation of a colorful presentation. If you have ever
seen a car painted a custom color that just didn’t attract you, or seen colors
put together in ways that made you wonder what people were thinking when they
did that, you will recognize that color can also distract and turn off an
audience.
Color is a powerful way to present information, and the power
should be used wisely. You will be selecting which color you want to use for
headers or key words, and how they relate the colors in the visual images.
Together, your images, key words, and the use of color in fonts, impact on your
audience. You will need to give some thought and consideration to what type of
impact you want to make, how it will contribute or possibly distract, and what
will work well for you to produce an effective and impressive presentation.
There are inherent relationships between colors, and while you may have covered
some of this information in art classes you have taken, it is valuable to
review here. According to the standard color wheel, colors are grouped into
primary, secondary, and tertiary categories. Primary colors are the colors from
which other colors are made through various combinations. Secondary colors
represent a combination of two primary colors, while tertiary colors are made
from combinations of primary and secondary colors.
Figure
11.7. Color Wheel
Primary
colors.: Red, blue and yellow
Secondary
colors: Green, violet, and orange
Tertiary
colors: Red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue-green, yellow-orange
and yellow-green
Colors
have relationships depending on their location on the wheel. Colors that are
opposite each other are called complementary and they contrast, creating a
dynamic effect. Analogous colors are located next to each other and promote
harmony, continuity, and sense of unity.
Your audience comes first: when considering your choice of colors
to use, legibility must be your priority.
Contrast can help the audience read your key terms more easily.
Also, focus on the background color and its relation to the images you plan to
incorporate to insure they complement each other. Consider repetition of color,
from your graphics to your text, to help unify each slide. To reduce visual
noise, try not to use more than two or three additional colors. Use colors
sparingly to make a better impact, and consider the use of texture and reverse
color fonts (the same as a background or white) as an option. Be aware that
many people are blue-green colorblind, and that red-green colorblindness is
also fairly common. With this in mind, choose colors that most audience members
will be able to differentiate. If you are using a pie chart, for example, avoid
putting a blue segment next to a green one. Use labeling so that even if
someone is totally colorblind they will be able to tell the relative sizes of
the pie segments and what they signify.
Color is also a matter of culture. Some colors may be perceived as
formal or informal, or masculine or feminine. Recognize that red is usually
associated with danger, while green signals “go.” Make sure the color
associated with the word is reflected in your choice. If you have a key word
about nature, but the color is metallic, the contrast may not contribute to the
rhetorical situation and confuse the audience.
Seeking a balance between professionalism and attractiveness may
seem to be a challenge, but experiment and test your drafts with friends to see
what works for you. Also consider examining other examples, commonly available
on the Internet, but retain the viewpoint that not everything online is
effective nor should it be imitated. There are predetermined color schemes
already incorporated into PowerPoint that you can rely on for your
presentation. We’ve given consideration to color in relation to fonts and the
representation of key words, but we also need to consider font size and
selection. PowerPoint will have default settings for headlines and text, but
you will need to consider what is most appropriate for your rhetorical
situation. Always think about the person sitting in the back of the room. The
title size should be at least forty points, and the body text (used sparingly)
should be at least thirty two points.
Visual
aids should be clear from the back of the room.
I n Designing Visual Language: Strategies for Professional
Communicators,[173] Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts provide a
valuable discussion of fonts, font styles, and what to choose to make an
impact depending on your rhetorical situation. One good principle they
highlight is that sans serif fonts such as Arial work better than
serif fonts like Times New Roman for images projected onto a screen. The
thin lines and extra aspects to serif the font may not portray
themselves well on a large screen or contribute to clarity. To you this
may mean that you choose Arial or a similar font to enhance clarity and
ease of reading. Kostelnick and Roberts also discuss the use of
grouping strategies to improve the communication of information.[174]
Bullets, the use of space, similarity, and proximity all pertain to the
process of perception, which differs from one person to another.
Helpful
Hints for Visual Aids
As we’ve discussed, visual aids can be a powerful tool when used
effectively, but can also run the risk of dominating your presentation. As a
speaker, you will need to consider your audience and how the portrayal of
images, text, graphic, animated sequences, or sound files will contribute or
detract from your presentation. Here is a brief list of hints to keep in mind
as you prepare your presentation.
(i) Keep
visual aids simple.
(ii) Use
one key idea per slide.
(iii)
Avoid clutter, noise, and overwhelming slides.
(iv) Use
large, bold fonts that the audience can read from at least twenty feet from the
screen.
(v) Use
contrasting colors to create a dynamic effect.
(vi) Use
analogous colors to unify your presentation.
(vii)
Use clip art with permission and sparingly.
(viii)
Edit and proofread each slide with care and caution.
(ix) Use
copies of your visuals available as handouts after your presentation.
(x)
Check the presentation room beforehand.
With a PowerPoint presentation, or any presentation involving
technology, have a backup plan, such as your visuals printed on transparencies,
should unexpected equipment or interface compatibility problems arise Becoming
proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice. The more you practice
before your speech, the more comfortable you will be with your visual aids and
the role they serve in illustrating your message. Giving thought to where to
place visual aids before speaking helps, but when the time comes to actually
give your speech, make sure you reassess your plans and ensure that they work
for the audience as they should. Speaking to a visual aid (or reading it to the
audience) is not an effective strategy. Know your material well enough that you
refer to your visual aids, not rely on them.
Key
Takeaway
Strategically
chosen visual aids will serve to illustrate, complement, and reinforce your
verbal message.
Exercises
1. Look at the picture of the blankets above. Write copy for the
left part of the slide and decide what colors would best complement the
message. Share your results with the class.
2. Create your own presentation of three to five slides with no
less than three images and three words per slide. Share the results with the
class.
3. Explore PowerPoint or a similar slide ware program and find
your favorite feature. Write a series of steps on how to access and use it.
Share your results with the class.
4. Create a slide presentation that defines and explains your
favorite feature in the program and include at least one point on its advantage
for the audience. Share the results with the class.
[172] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[173] Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing
visual language: Strategies for professional communicators. Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[174] Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing
visual language: Strategies for professional communicators. Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
15.9 Nonverbal
Strategies for Success with Your Audience
Learning
Objective
1.
Demonstrate three ways to improve nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is an important aspect of business
communication, from the context of an interpersonal interaction to a public
presentation. It is a dynamic, complex, and challenging aspect of
communication. We are never done learning and adapting to our environment and
context, and improving our understanding of nonverbal communication comes with
the territory.
When your audience first sees you, they begin to make judgments
and predictions about you and your potential, just as an employer might do when
you arrive for a job interview. If you are well dressed and every crease is
ironed, your audience may notice your attention to detail.
Wearing jeans with holes, a torn T-shirt, and a baseball cap would
send a different message. Neither style of dress is “good” or “bad, but simply
appropriate or inappropriate depending on the environment and context. Your
skills as an effective business communicator will be called upon when you
contemplate your appearance. As a speaker, your goal is to create common ground
and reduce the distance between the audience and yourself. You want your
appearance to help establish and reinforce your credibility. In order to be a
successful business communicator, you will need to continually learn about
nonverbal communication and its impact on your interactions. Below are three
ways to examine nonverbal communication.
Watch
Reactions
Market research is fundamental to success in business and
industry. So, too, you will need to do a bit of field research to observe how,
when, and why people communicate the way they do. If you want to be able to
communicate effectively with customers, you will need to anticipate not only
their needs, but also how they communicate. They are far more likely to
communicate with someone whom they perceive as being like them, than with a
perceived stranger. From dress to mannerisms and speech patterns, you can learn
from your audience how to be a more effective business communicator.
Enroll
an Observer
Most communication in business and industry involves groups and
teams, even if the interpersonal context is a common element. Enroll a coworker
or colleague in your effort to learn more about your audience, or even
yourself. They can observe your presentation and note areas you may not have
noticed that could benefit from revision. Perhaps the gestures you make while
speaking tend to distract rather than enhance your presentations. You can also
record a video of your performance and play it for them, and yourself, to get a
sense of how your nonverbal communication complements or detracts from the
delivery of your message.
Focus on
a Specific Type of Nonverbal Communication
What is
the norm for eye contact where you work? Does this change or differ based on
gender, age, ethnicity, cultural background, context, and environment?
Observation will help you learn more about how people communicate; looking for
trends across a specific type of nonverbal communication can be an effective strategy.
Focus on one behavior you exhibit on your videotape, like pacing, body
movements across the stage, hand gestures as you are making a point, or eye
contact with the audience.
Key
Takeaway
To use
nonverbal communication to enhance your message, watch reactions and consider
enrolling an observer to help you become aware of your nonverbal habits and how
your audience receives nonverbal messages.
Exercises
1. Watch a television program without the sound. Can you
understand the program? Write a description of the program and include what you
found easy to understand, and what presented a challenge, and present it to the
class.
2. Observe communication in your environment. Focus on specific
actions like face touching, blink rate, or head nodding and write a brief
description of what you observe. Share with classmates.
3. In a group, play charades. Pull words from a hat or envelope
and act out the words without verbal communication.
4. Interview someone from a different culture than your own and
ask them to share a specific cultural difference in nonverbal communication—for
example, a nonverbal gesture that is not used in polite company. Write a brief
description and present it to the class.
5. What do you think are the assumptions (explicit or underlying)
about nonverbal communication in this chapter? Discuss your thoughts with a
classmate.
Additional
Resources
Visit
this site for a library of University of California videotapes on nonverbal
communication produced by Dane Archer of the University of California at Santa
Cruz.
http://nonverbal.ucsc.edu Read “Six Ways
to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications” by Vicki Ritts, St. Louis Community
College at Florissant Valley and James R. Stein, Southern Illinois University,
Edwardsville. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/commun-
1.htm Read “Listen With Your Eyes: Tips for Understanding
Nonverbal
Communication,” an About.com article by Susan Heathfield.
http://humanresources.about.com/od/interpersonalcommunicatio1/a/nonverbal_com.htm
Presentation Magazine offers a wealth of ideas, tips, and templates for
designing effective visual aids. http://www.presentationmagazine.com
The National Center for Education Statistics offers an easy-to-use “Create a
Graph” tutorial including bar, line,
area,
pie, and other types of graphs. The site is made for kids, but it’s worthwhile
for adults too.
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/graphing/classic
Read “The Seven Sins of Visual Presentations” from Presentation Magazine.
http://www.presentationmagazine.com/7sinsvisual.http
Yale
emeritus professor Edward Tufte is one of the top authorities on the visual
presentation of data. Learn about his books on data presentation and a one-day
course he teaches. http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/courses
Greg Conley has produced an excellent discussion of color, contrast, and tips
for the use of color on his Web site and has gracefully allowed it to be
included here for your benefit. Check out his site for more in-depth
information and consider taking an art course to further develop your awareness
of color. http://www.watercolorpainting.com/color.htm
Visit
“Presenting Effective Presentations with Visual
Aids”
from the U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA Office of Training and Education.
http://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/traintec.html
The American Psychological Association provides guidelines for making
presentations accessible for persons with disabilities.
http://www.apa.org/pi/disability/resources/convention/index.aspx
Read
“Using Visual Aids and Props for Giving More Powerful Presentations” by Larry
M. Lynch.
http://ezinearticles.com/?Using-Visual-Aids-and-Props-for-
Giving-More-Powerful-Presentations&id=100871 Is “how you say it” really
more important than what you say? Read an article by communications expert Dana
Bristol-Smith that debunks a popular myth.
http://www.sideroad.com/Public_Speaking/how-you-saynot-
more-important-what-you-say.htm
15.10
Thesis Writing and Presentation
While writing and presenting your Thesis or
Dissertation, you go through many stages. These stages are very important.
Anyone in this process must make sure that no stage is left out. These stages
are the following.
•
Thinking About It
•
Preparing the Proposal
•
Conducting the Research
•
Writing the Research Paper
•
Define research
•
Discuss basic elements of a research paper
•
Sharing the Research Outcomes with Others
•
Revising the Research Paper
Thinking about it
The "thinking about it stage" is when you are finally faced with
the reality of completing your degree. Usually the early phases of a graduate
program proceed in clear and very structured ways. The beginning phases of a graduate
program precede in much the same manner as an undergraduate degree program.
There are clear requirements and expectations, and the graduate student moves
along, step by step, getting ever closer to the completion of the program. One
day, however, the clear structure begins to diminish and now you're approaching
the thesis/dissertation stage. This is a new and different time. These next
steps are more and more defined by you and not by your adviser, the
program, or the department.
Be inclusive with your thinking.
Don't try to eliminate ideas too quickly.
Build on your ideas and see how many different research projects you can
identify. Give yourself the luxury of being expansive in your thinking at this
stage -- you won't be able to do this later on. Try and be creative.
Write down your ideas.
This will allow you to revisit an idea
later on. Or, you can modify and change an idea. If you don't write your ideas
they tend to be in a continual state of change and you will probably have the
feeling that you're not going anywhere. What a great feeling it is to be able
to sit down and scan the many ideas you have been thinking about, if they're
written down.
Try not to be overly influenced at this
time by what you feel others expect from you
You shouldn’t be influenced by your
colleagues, your profession, your academic department, etc. You have a much
better chance of selecting a topic that will be really of interest to you if it
is your topic. This will be one of the few opportunities you may have in your
professional life to focus in on a research topic that is really of your own
choosing.
Don't be overambitious
Don't begin your thinking by assuming that
your research will draw international attention to you! Instead, be realistic
in setting your goal. Make sure your expectations are tempered by the
realization that you are fulfilling an academic requirement,
Be realistic about the time of the research
project
Instead, be realistic in
setting your goal. Make sure your expectations are tempered by the realization
that you are fulfilling an academic requirement, and the idea that first and
foremost occurred to you is very important. The whole research project should
be a learning experience for you. If you can keep these ideas in mind while
you're thinking through your research you stand an excellent chance of having
your research project turn out well. The best time to get the most from a leave
of absence is during the fourth stage - the writing stage. This is the
time when you really need to be thinking well. To be able to work at your
writing in large blocks of time without interruptions is something really
important.
It
can be most helpful at this early stage to try a very small preliminary
research study to test out some of your ideas to help you gain further
confidence in what you'd like to do. The study can be as simple as conducting
half a dozen informal interviews with no attempt to document what is said. The
key is that it will give you a chance to get closer to your research and to
test out whether or not you really are interested in the topic.
And,
you can do it before you have committed yourself to doing something you may not
like. Take your time and try it first.
PREPARING
THE PROPOSAL
Assuming you've done a good job of
"thinking about" your research project, you're ready to actually
prepare the proposal. A word of caution - those students who tend to have a
problem in coming up with a viable proposal often are the ones that have tried
to rush through the "thinking about it" part and move too quickly to
trying to write the proposal.
Read through someone else's research
proposal.
Very often a real stumbling block is that
we don't have an image in our mind of what the finished research proposal
should look like. How has the other proposal been organized? What are the
headings that have been used? Does the other proposal seem clear? Does it seem
to suggest that the writer knows the subject area? Can I model my proposal
after one of these that I've seen? If you can't readily find a proposal or two
to look at, ask your adviser to see some.
Make sure your proposal has a comprehensive review of the literature
included. Now this idea, at first thought, may not seem to make sense. Many
students may tell me that "This is only the proposal. I'll do a complete
literature search for the dissertation. I don't want to waste the time
now." But, this is the time to do it. The rationale behind the literature
review consists of an argument with two lines of analysis: 1) this research is
needed, and 2) the methodology I have chosen is most appropriate for the
question that is being asked. Now, why would you want to wait? Now is the time
to get informed and to learn from others who have preceded you! If you wait
until you are writing the dissertation it is too late. You've got to do it same
time so you might as well get on with it and do it now. Besides, you will
probably want to add to the literature review when you're writing the final
dissertation
What is a proposal anyway?
A good proposal should consist of the first three chapters of the
dissertation. It should begin with a statement of the problem/background
information (typically Chapter I of the dissertation), then move on to a review
of the literature (Chapter 2), and conclude with a defining of the research
methodology (Chapter 3).
Of course, it should be written in a future
tense since it is a proposal. To turn a good proposal into the first three
chapters of the dissertation consists of changing the tense from future tense
to past tense. For example;
"This is what I would like to do"
to "This is what I did"
And you also make any changes based on the
way you actually carried out the research when compared to how you proposed to
do it. Often the intentions we state in our proposal turn out different in reality
and we then have to make appropriate editorial changes to move it from proposal
to dissertation
Focus your research very specifically.
Don't try to have your research cover too
broad an area. Now you may think that this will distort what you want to do.
This may be the case, but you will be able to do the project if it is narrowly
defined. Usually a broadly defined project is not do-able. Often the researcher
finds that what he/she originally thought to be a good research project turns
out to really be a group of research projects. Do one project for your
dissertation and save the other projects for later in your career. Don't try to
solve all of the problems in this one research project.
Include a title on your proposal.
How often the title is left for the end of
the student's writing and then somehow forgotten when the proposal is prepared
for the committee. A good proposal has a good title and it is the first thing
to help the reader begin to understand the nature of your work. Use it wisely! Work
on your title early in the process and revisit it often. It's easy for a reader
to identify those proposals where the title has been focused upon by the
student.
·
Preparing
a topic understand the distinction between the subject and a topic that
can help you to plan your research paper effectively.
·
Within
a broader research subject decide about the topic that is more focused and
worth an investigation.
·
Consider
your subject or topic and answer the questions who, what, when, where, why, and
how.
·
Draw
a short and possible list of topics and settle for the one that interests you
and is worth investigating.
·
Explore
your own understanding of the topic, as there's always a temptation to select a
topic before a thorough ground work, resist the temptation.
·
Be
sure that the topic meets the requirements of your research assignment,
audience's needs, and expectations
·
Avoid
dead end topics those unsuitable for your interest or resources.
·
Avoid
scattered, superficial research topics.
·
Avoid
topics that are too beaten and narrow and has nothing new to offer.
·
Pick
a topic that shows your individuality, ability and interests.
·
Continue
refining and narrowing it to make it significantly specific
·
Ensure
that there: are sufficient resources available on your selected topic because
without a worthwhile literature
·
Good
title means: having the most important words appear towards the beginning of
your title.
What is Research?
The word research is used in different
field in different senses. If you are a beginner researcher, you are facing the
same problem whether you are preparing a small project, an MBA dissertation or
PhD theses. You need to select a topic, identify the objectives of your study
plan and design a suitable methodology. Besides, devise a research instrument,
negotiate access to institutions, material and people, collect, analysis,
present information and finally, provides a well-written repot or dissertation.
We all learn how to do research by actually
doing it but a great deal of time can be wasted and goodwill dissipated by
inadequate preparation. But before we discuss further it better to define the
term research.
Different people define it differently. For
example;
·
A
formal document
·
Knowing
a subject thoroughly
·
Expression
of ones undertaking About the topic
·
Result
of ones intellectual curiosity
·
Analysis
and syntheses of different resources
·
Reasonable
bias free conclusion
·
Howard
and Sharp (1983) "Seeking through methodical processes to add to one’s own
body of knowing and hopefully, to that of others, by discovery of non-trivial
facts and insight."
·
Drew
(1980) "Research is conducted to solve problems and expand knowledge.
Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of
enquiry."
We find the word research being used in two
senses.
1.
The outcome of research is the establishment,
publicizing or utilization of something that somebody-not the researcher or the
person commissioning it- already knows.
2.
The
outcome of knowledge that nobody had before.
The word research is used in different
fields in one or other of these senses and in some fields in both senses
Fiction:
For many novelists, It is essential to
prepare for their writing by researching the background in which they wish to
set their narrative for accuracy of description, sensitivity to atmosphere,
history of the period in which their fiction takes place and authenticity of
the language. The final criterion for them is the authenticity and artistic
conviction of the final product in their reader’s eyes. Research in this sense
may take many forms, and involve considerable expense in terms of effort, time,
and money: but the originality of the novel does not lie in the research but in
the artistic creation for which it provides a background.
Journalism:
For journalist, especially in investigative
journalism, long periods of time are spent researching their stories to uncover
facts and secrets which their editorial policy judges to be in the public
interest, and in cross-checking what they are told or discovered to establish
its truth. This is not usually new truth, but information otherwise not public
or deliberately withheld by another person. For them, the final criterion of
truth may be bound up with legalities: the law of libel and slander, or the
Official Secret Act.
Police work:
For the police, there is an obvious
parallel between preparing case against a suspect by detective work and
research in this first sense: the criminal they seek has a secret which the
police are bound to uncover. Here again the criterion of validity of the
research is circumscribed by the law: laws of evidence, police procedure,
protection of the rights of the innocent, the criminal and the victim. However,
it is interesting that in this connection the language prefers the term
‘detection’ or ‘investigation’ to research.
Business and commerce:
In the commercial world, much money is
invested in product development and even sponsorship of basic research, and
here one is referring to the second sense as described above. However, research
is also conducted into the people who will buy the products: market research.
Market research is used to establish what can be sold who will buy it, how a
product can be packaged, advertised priced to make it commercially attractive,
and, linked to advertising campaigns, even to create market – to persuade
people to buy something they did not know they wanted. The final criterion for
research in this field is not therefore simply truth – the description of a
market situation – and the authentic expression of that truth, but also the
success of an intervention or manipulation of the market is measured usually in
profit terms.
Some obvious examples of research in the
second sense are the following:
Medical research:
This is research in
the second sense: to find out things nobody knew before. The final criterion is
the discovery of new truths, but also the translation of the new truths into
practical treatments, and the developments of economies of scale so that the
treatment is available for the largest number of people. Here ethical
considerations receive a great deal of attention, both in terms of the human
patients and the animals which are used for trials.
Science and technology:
Everyone naturally associates research with
science and technology, white coats and laboratories, but it should be
remembered in this context that advances in the sciences are not restricted to
the discovery of new facts: advances in theory development and in research
methods and approaches occur in parallel. It is of course a commonplace, though
nevertheless important, to highlight the ethics of the development of
scientific knowledge, both in the process of gathering the knowledge and in the
fields of application
Sections of a Thesis (Format)
The following are sections that most theses
should contain.
Introduction:
This section is an introduction to the
topic and the subject. It describes the background to the research,
particularly the major ideas (or theoretical perspective) from which the
research is derived. The introduction explains the reasons for doing the
research, and indicates why the research is important valuable or significant.
It outlines the contribution that the research will make to knowledge. The
introduction also outlines the aims of the research by presenting research
questions or hypotheses.
Be sure to include in the introduction a
clear statement of your hypothesis and how you are going to address it
Throughout the introduction you should use citations from the research literature
to support your study. These citations should include but not be limited to
research presented in the Literature Review.
Statement of the Problem:
You should clearly state the problem that
your thesis is going to address. You should also present relevant information
about why this is an important problem. Describe what precisely you intend to
show/argue and why (i.e., address the ever-lurking "So what?"
question). Is your research problem addressing a significant social problem, or
is it testing some theoretical hypothesis, such as the argument that high
television viewing levels make people feel apolitical and powerless.
The issues raised ideally are timely,
relevant to the problems or trends of the present time, and have broad
applicability. Good questions are those allowing theories to be tested or, as
when two theories make opposing predictions, be compared.
In this section you should first grab the
attention and interest of your readers; and secondly introduce the problem to
be studied. All assertions of feet must be documented. Be careful of any
generalizations that you make. A social science research paper is not an
editorial. In short a thesis statement is what you'll PROVE, it is the
ARGUMENT. If is the SCOPE, it is the MAIN IDEA and the PURPOSE of your paper
and that you intend to
develop, prove, defend or explore
with evidence and therefore has an argumentative or informational edge and must
not state the obvious.
Background and Need:
You should present relevant literature that
supports the need for your project. Research articles, books, educational and
government statistics are just a few sources that should be used here. This
section can include brief overviews of articles covered in the literature
review that support the need for your project.
Rationale:
The rationale should define the larger
problem being investigated. Summarize what is known about the problem, define
the gap(s) in the knowledge, and state what needs to be done to address the
gap(s).
Purpose of the Project:
Based on the above background information,
explain the purpose of the study. Explain what you hope the study will
accomplish and why you chose to do this particular study. This should be
supported with citations and specific information related to the study.
Research Questions/Hypotheses:
Given the background above, you carefully
state the hypothesis (ses) that will be tested in your thesis. The hypothesis
is the central question being researched. It should be expressed in
straight-forward terms. A good hypothesis is comparative, measurable, and
falsifiable. Hypotheses are usually defined in "cause -effect"
relationships. Any corollary hypotheses or secondary research questions should
also be stated. Any supplemental definitions or discussion necessary to explain
the hypothesis should be offered.
Underlying every theory is the issue of
causality. What exactly does it mean to say that poverty "causes"
crime, that cultural materialism "causes" moral decay? Just because
two events historically occur simultaneously does not necessarily mean that one
is influencing the other.
Hypothesis is a guide or a sign post to the
researcher that keeps one on the track. The researcher tests the initial
presupposition or hypothesis while working along.
·
Hypothesis
is formulated in such a way that it enables the researcher to test it.
·
Hypothesis
depicts and describes the method that follows during the study.
·
Hypothesis
is a kind of hunch that the researcher has about the topic.
·
Hypothesis
establishes the precise focus of the research study.
·
Hypothesis
helps decide the aims and objectives of the study.
·
Hypothesis
is of speculative nature, an imaginative preconception of "what might be
true".
·
Hypothesis
is a well established research question that can be in form of a descriptive
statement or a question.
The thesis
statement is usually considered the most important sentence and the main point
of your essay/ report or research paper because it out lines the central
purpose of your essay.
A thesis,
statement is one of the greatest unifying aspects of a paper. It should act as
mortar, holding together the various bricks of a paper, summarizing the main
point of the paper “in a nutshell” and heralds the development of the paper.
A thesis
statement is what you'll PROVE, it is the ARGUMENT. If is the SCOPE, it is the
MAIN IDEA and the PURPOSE of your paper and that you intend
to develop, prove, defend or explore with evidence and therefore has an
argumentative or informational edge and must not state the obvious.
A thesis
statement is a sentence that clearly and concisely indicates the
Subject of your
paper, the main points you will discuss, and the order in which you will
discuss them.
A thesis
statement establishes the writer's point of view, set the, stage or mood of the
paper and prepare, the readers what to expect. A thesis statement is important
for the writer, because it gives the structure to the paper and .is equally
important for the readers, because it guides them as what to expect. It is
precise. It is not something that one has trouble understanding and should be
specific enough to give your reader a clear sense of what your entire essay is
going to discuss. It should not be too general or so specific, that it fails to
represent any strong position. Often, the thesis is stated clearly in one or
two sentences at the end of, the essay's introduction. There are exceptions to almost every rule of
writing, including this one. Ideally,
the position of the thesis statement needs to be at the end of the introductory
paragraph so that readers know the topic of the papers.
Examples of General to Specific Thesis
Statements:
Notice the
transition...from General to Specific
Men and women are
different. Men and women communicate differently. Whereas men tend to focus on
the literal aspect of what is being said in a conversation, women often
"read between the lines" and focus more on intonation and body
language; this phenomenon may significantly contribute to the high divorce rate
among many couples. Hawthorn discusses evilness in Young Goodman Brown. In
Young Goodman Brown, Hawthorn discusses evilness through symbols. In Young
Goodman Brown, Hawthorn uses light and darkness to emphasize good and evil in
the world
Follow these guidelines while searching for a subject topic
•
Understand the distinction between the subject and a
topic that can help you to plan your research paper effectively.
•
Within a broader research subject decide about the
topic that is more focused and worth an investigation.
•
Consider your subject or topic and answer the
questions who, what, when, where, why, and how.
•
Draw a short and possible list of topics and settle
for the one that interests you and is worth investigating.
•
Explore your own understanding of the topic, as
there's always a temptation to select a topic before a thorough ground work,
resist the temptation.
•
Be sure that the topic meets the requirements of
your research assignment, audience's needs, and expectations
A topic should be
single, -don’t try too much. Significant -is your topic important to you and
your reader? Specific -limit your topic to narrow, specific points higher
failure… Supportive -is there enough evidence to support, defend your topic?
Avoid dead
end topics those unsuitable for your interest or resources. Avoid
scattered, superficial research topics. Avoid topics that are too beaten and
narrow and has nothing new to offer. Pick a topic that shows your individuality,
ability and interests. Continue refining and narrowing it to make it
significantly specific, ensure that there: are sufficient resources
available on your selected topic because without a worthwhile literature review
the thesis will be worthless.
Limitations:
Provide a background for any
limitations to this study. Be very specific; for example, the population to
which your findings will be limited.
Literature Review:
The literature review should discuss all of the research that has been done on the
subject, since the purpose of
the literature review is to concisely demonstrate your level of understanding of the research
related to your project. You should not
discuss all of the literature in-depth. Rather you should group your literature according to some general topics
and only discuss specific studies if they are “landmark” studies for your area of research (there should be 6-10 of these). How you
group the discussion will depend on your project but be sure to come up
with a logical organization before you
begin writing. How many studies should be included will depend on the
topic, but a general baseline in 75 to
100 references (although many topics will appropriately have many more
than this). The literature review should
end with a discussion of how the literature relates to your study. What have others found regarding your
research question? From their findings, coupled with your theory, develop a
logical argument that leads to the statement of your hypothesis (this is your
theoretical hypothesis expressed in terms of concepts). Your
hypothesis/hypotheses should be the conclusion of this “Review” section.
Methodology:
This section includes methods which will be
used. Describe data collection procedure to be used whether they'll be
experiment, survey, questionnaires, observations, participatory methods, case
studies document collection or other method. The method must be reliable that
can be repeated same time and be internally and externally valid.
External validity means that the results
are generalisable to a wide range of situations. It is often necessary to
present evidence in this section that the study is actually achievable. This
section or a separate section should also describe the data analysis methods to
be used. As with the data collection methods, the analysis methods should be
justified by reference to the relevant literature. A methodology section can
contain a flow chart which summarizes the way in which the various processes
involved in the project fit together.
Describe the sample employed and the
variable used to test your hypothesis. One should give just enough information
here so that other can replicate
your procedures and hopefully come up with the same findings and conclusion as
you did
One of the expectations of performing original
research is that someone in the future will do further research on this topic.
Such a researcher should be able to use your methodology without having to
consult any other source. If you are using statistical analyses, explain the
statistical methods. What do they mean? How are they used? Why are they more
applicable here than other similar methods?
Data collection and Analysis Plan:
It is not uncommon for novice researchers
to collect a considerable amount of data and then realize that they don’t know
what to do with it. Design the data collection process to make it easy to
collect, code, manage, and analyze. Describe what the physical procedures will
be for managing this data. Will you use tables, spreadsheets or data bases to
aggregate and analyze the data? Will computers be used to store, manipulate or
evaluate it? How will this be done? Who will do it? How long will it take? Will
it require special hardware, software; budge accounts, or personnel (such as
technical assistant)? What kinds of analysis will be done? How will it be
accomplished? How will the findings be presented for interpretation?
Discussion:
This chapter should begin with a concise
restatement of your study’s purpose along with any needed background
information. You should restate each of your hypotheses. Now that you have
presented the results in the previous section, discuss them in this section.
What, specifically, do the results mean? How can they be interpreted? Can they
be interpreted in multiple ways? What do the findings tell you about your
hypothesis? Do not claim more for your results than the data really shows.
Avoid speculation.
Conclusions:
This section should summarize your results
and discussion. You should include a list of the most important findings of
your study in descending order of important. You should also provide a
statement about the possibility of future study. What needs to be done and what
does this study contribute? Since this is too often the only part of a paper
that some individuals read it is important to reiterate what you intended to
discover and what, in fact, you fond.
Bibliography:
All pieces of literature referred to should
be listed at the end of the proposal using the referencing style appropriate to
the department. Before you begin compiling this section, find out what style
you are expected to use. Carefully adhere to it or you will raise the ire of
your committee. It is important to ensure that all the key journals and books
in the field have been referred to in the proposal. This demonstrates that the
proposal has been developed from a thorough understanding of the important
theoretical perspectives and research findings in the literature.
Appendices:
If you have material that is too long to
include in a table (raw data, field notes, etc.) or not appropriate to a
particular section it should be included as an appendix.
Tables and Figures:
Tables and figures should appear in the
text after they are first mentioned. Appending them at the end of the thesis is
a very awkward arrangement and makes the thesis difficult to read. Materials
presented in tables and figures should not be duplicated in the text.
Raw Data:
Your raw data should always appear as part
of the thesis. This should appear as an appendix at the end of your thesis.
Another research should be able to duplicate your work with no other documents
at their disposal.
Research
methodology
Making a Preliminary Choice of Methodology
Distinguish between three related concepts:
i) Research Perspectives
ii) Research Types
iii) Research Methods
Research Perspectives
Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives
A research perspective, as used here, is a
general view and use of research approaches and methods. There are two major
perspectives: quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative perspective
derives from a positivist epistemology, which holds that there is an objective
reality that can be expressed numerically. As a consequence the quantitative
perspective emphasizes studies that are experimental in nature, emphasize
measurement, and search for relationships. If a study uses language such as the
following, it probably has used a quantitative perspective: variable, controls,
validity, reliability, hypothesis, statically significant.
On the other hand, a qualitative
perspective emphasizes a phenomenological view in which reality inheres in the
perceptions of individuals. Studies deriving from this perspective focus on
meaning and understanding, and take place in naturally occurring situations
(McMillan, 1996). If a study uses language such as the following, it probably
has used a qualitative perspective: naturalistic, field study, case study,
context, situational, constructivism, meaning, multiple realities.
While some researchers seem chiefly
concerned with the differences between the two approaches, Morgan (1997)
explains how the two perspectives can be combined. He identifies four general
ways of combining the two, based upon two factors: which one is primary and
which, secondary; and which one is used first and which, second.
1. Quantitative primary, qualitative first.
The researcher begins with a qualitative approach as the secondary method,
using the qualitative data as a basis for collecting and interpreting the
quantitative data (the primary method).
2. Quantitative primary, quantitative
first. The researcher begins with a quantitative approach as the primary
method, using qualitative follow-up to evaluate and interpret the quantitative
results.
3. Qualitative primary, quantitative first.
The researcher begins by collecting quantitative preliminary data as a basis
for collecting and interpreting the primary qualitative data.
4. Qualitative primary, qualitative first.
The researcher begins with the primary qualitative data, using quantitative
follow up to interpret the qualitative data.
Research Types
The term research type is used here to
identify the general research approach. While authorities in the field seem to
differ as to how the types of research are classified, the following
approaches, which are most often used in educational research, represent some
of the options available to you as a researcher. To simplify the discussion,
they are divided into whether they tend to use a quantitative or a qualitative
perspective, although there is much overlapping in many of the types.
Studies Primarily Quantitative in Nature
The following types of research are
primarily quantitative in nature.
Experimental Research
Experimental research uses methods
originally applied in the physical and biological sciences. In most experiments
the following procedures are used: a sample of subjects is selected; they are
assigned randomly to experimental and control groups; a treatment is
administrated to the experimental group only. The two groups are then evaluated
on the basis of the dependent variable, the consequence of the independent
variable. The latter is the presumed cause of the dependent variable.
Quasi-Experimental Research
A quasi-experimental design is one that
follows the general procedures of experimental research, without the use of
control group or without random assignment, since random assignment or the use
of control groups is often not feasible in educational settings.
Causal-Comparative Research
Causal comparative studies are designed to
determine the possible causes of a phenomenon. Sometimes these studies are
called ex post facto research.
Co relational Research
Correlation studies are designed to analyze
the relationships between two or more variables, ordinarily through the use of
correlation coefficients.
Descriptive Research
As the term implies, the purpose of
descriptive research is to describe a phenomenon. Descriptive studies report
frequencies, averages, and percentages. For example, you might study the
attitudes.
Evaluation Research
Evaluation research makes judgments about
the merit or wroth of educational programs, products, and organizations. It is
typically undertaken in order to aid administrators in making professional
decisions. Evaluation studies are usually described as either formative or
summative. Formative studies are made while a new program or product is being
developed; summative studies, when it has been completed. You might do an
evaluation of a new standard-based curriculum, performing both a formative and
a summative assessment.
Studies Primarily Qualitative in Nature
The following types of research tend to
take a qualitative perspective.
Case Study Research
A case study is an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which
multiple source of evidence are used.
Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research is special types of
case study research. It is distinguished from other types of case studies
because it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study the culture
of schools and classrooms.
Action
Research
Most action research documents how an
educational problem was identified, understood, and solved by practitioners.
Research Methods
Research methods, as the term is used here,
are the specific techniques used to collect data with respect to the research
problem. In general, five methods are typically used in educational research.
1. Test and measurements. Tests are
administered and measurements made to determine the extent of change.
2. Interviews. Interviews are conducted with
individuals or groups to ascertain their perceptions.
3. Observations. Observations are made to
determine what is occurring and what individuals are doing.
4. Surveys. Surveys are administered to
assess opinions, perceptions, and attitudes.
5. Documents. Documents are analyzed to
establish the record.
Make Preliminary Choices
The process explained here assumes that in
developing the prospectus you will make only a preliminary choice that may be
like the following.
|
Type/
Method |
Test, measurement
|
Interview
|
Observation
|
Survey
|
Documents
|
|
Experiment
|
P
|
|
A
|
|
A
|
|
Quasi-experimental
|
P
|
|
A
|
|
A
|
|
Causal comparison
|
P
|
|
A
|
|
A
|
|
Co relational
|
P
|
|
A
|
|
A
|
|
Descriptive
|
A
|
A
|
|
P
|
A
|
|
Evaluation
|
P
|
A
|
A
|
A
|
A
|
|
Ethnographic
|
|
A
|
P
|
|
A
|
|
Action
|
|
A
|
P
|
A
|
|
|
Case study
|
|
A
|
P
|
A
|
A
|
Following the a summery of the both types
of research.
|
|
Quantitative Research
|
Qualitative Research
|
|
Key concepts
|
Variable
Controlled
Reliable
Hypothesized
Statistically significant
|
Meaning
Understanding
Social construction
Context
Situation
|
|
Context Used
|
Agriculture
Psychology
Political Science
Economics
Basic Sciences
|
Anthropology
History
Sociology
|
|
Goals
|
Test theory
Establish facts
Show relationship
predict
Statistically describe
|
Ground theory
Develop understanding
Describe multiple realities
Capture naturally occurring
Behavior
|
|
Design
|
Structured
Predetermined
Formal
Specific
|
Evolving
Flexible
General
|
|
Data
|
Quantities
Counts
Measures/instruments
Numbers
Statistics
|
Verbal descriptions
Field notes
Observations
Documents
|
|
Techniques or Methods
|
Experiments
Quasi-experiments
Structured observations
Structured interviews
Surveys
|
Observation
Participant observation
Open-ended interviewing
Review of documents and artifacts
|
|
Role of Researcher
|
Distant
Short term
Detached
Uninvolved
|
Close
Long term
Involved
Empathetic
Trusting
Intense
|
|
Data Analysis
|
Deductive
|
Inductive
Ongoing
Stress models, themes, and concepts
|
Format and Style
You will be required to abide by the
following format and style as specified by the Department.
Font Time
New Roman
Chapter Headings 18 Bold CAPS
Headings 14
Bold CPS
Sub-headings 14 Bold
Do not italicize or underline the
headings and sub-headings)
Text 12
Paper Quality Offset Paper 90 grams
Paper Size A4
– 213mm x 275mm
Spacing Double
Paragraphing Indented & space between paragraphs
Binding
Evaluation Copy Spiral
binding
Final Copy Hardbound
covered with cloth
Color of binding Dark Black
Spine To contain student’s name, title of the
thesis, level and year
Citation Manual APA
Margins Left 1 2.5 cm
Right 1” 2.5 cm
Top 1¼” 3.2 cm
Bottom
1” 2.5 cm
Font: Time
New Roman
Size: Topic
24
bold
Student’s
Name 18
bold
Name
of the Dept 16 bold
Name
of the university 18
bold
Text
The inner title would be the same, plus:
i) Statement of submission:
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the XXX at the Department of XXXXXXX Virtual University,
Lahore.
ii) Supervisor’s Name iii. Month, Year
Font: Time
New Roman
Size: Chapter
Headings 18 bold
Headings 14 bold CAPS
Sub-headings 14
bold
(Do
not italicize or underline the headings & sub-headings)
Text 12
Alignment Justified
Spacing Double
Paraphrasing Either indent or don’t but consistent.
8.2
Organization
A research thesis probably includes:
i.
Title Page
ii.
Inner Title
iii.
Abstract (2 pages)
iv.
Acceptance Certificate (Annex
E)
v.
Dedication / Acknowledgements
(optional)
vi.
Content List
vii.
Chapter 1: Introduction
viii.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
ix.
Chapter 3: Procedure of the
study
x.
Chapter 4: Data Analysis
xi.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
xii.
Bibliography
xiii.
Appendices, if any
Prelims
(Inner title – content list) will be numbered in Roam numerals – i, ii, iii,
iv, etc.
Arabic
numerals (1, 2,3, etc) will begin from Chapter 1:
Research
Methodology
Understanding the concept of documentation
How to make documents
i) MLA Modern Language Association (name &page ref at each place where source is used, a parenthetical citation system
ii) APA American psychological association a parenthetical citation system source name and publication system and sometimes page ref
Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches) with margins of 1 inch on all sides. Your final essay should include, in the order indicated below, as many of the following sections as are applicable, each of which should begin on a separate page:
Title page: includes a running head for
publication, title, and byline and affiliation.
General APA Guidelines
Image Caption: Sample APA title
page; running head and page number in upper right-hand corner, definition of
running head IN ALL CAPS, and vertically and horizontally centers the title of
the paper, its author and her affiliation to the page.
Page numbers and running head:
In the upper
right-hand corner of each page, include a 1-2 word version of your title.
Follow with five spaces and then the page number.
Abstract:
If your instructor
requires an abstract, write a 75-100 word overview of your essay, which should
include your main idea and your major points. You also may want to mention any
implications of your research. Place the abstract on its own page immediately
after the title page. Center the word Abstract and then follow with the
paragraph.
Headings:
Although not
absolutely necessary, headings can be helpful. For undergraduate papers, only
one level of heading is necessary. Major headings should be centered.
Capitalize every word in the heading except articles (a, the), short
prepositions (in, by, for), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or).
Visuals:
Visuals such as
tables and figures include graphs, charts, drawings, and photographs. Try to
keep the visuals as simple as possible and clearly label each visual with an
Arabic numeral (ex: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and include the title of the
visual. The label and the title should appear on separate lines above the
table, flush left. Below the table, provide the source. A sample Figure
treatment is shown below.
List of References:
Create your list of references
on its own page after the last page of your text. Center the title References
one inch from the top of the page. Give double space. Alphabetize the list of
references by the last name of the authors. If the work has no author or
editor, alphabetize the work by the first word of the title (excluding A, An,
or The).
In-Text Citations: The Basics
Reference citations in text are
covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some
general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.
Note: APA style
requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using
signal phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones (1998) found or Jones
(1998) has found...
APA Citation Basics
When using APA format, follow
the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last
name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text,
E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference
list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea
from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to
an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication in your in-text reference.
In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining
Always
capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
If you refer to
the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four
letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change.
Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives,
and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
(Note that in your References list, only the first word of a title will be
capitalized: Writing new media.)
When
capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born
Cyborgs.
Capitalize the
first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of
Hitchcock's Vertigo."
Italicize or
underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies,
television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American
Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
Put quotation
marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles
from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles:
"Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One
Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Short Quotations
If you are
directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of
publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by
"p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the
author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
According to
Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially
when it was their first time" (p. 199).Jones (1998) found "students
often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does
this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place
the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in
parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had
difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer
an explanation as to why.
Long Quotations
Place direct quotations longer
than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation
marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left
margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line
of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new
margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should
come after closing punctuation mark.
Jones's (1998)
study found the following:
Students often had difficulty
using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This
difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to
purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or Paraphrase
If you are
paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author
and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage
you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)According to
Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners
APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998,
p. 199).
In-Text Citations: Author/Authors
APA style has a series of
important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There
are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and
sources without page numbers.
Citing an Author or Authors
A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you
cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within
the text and use "&" in the parentheses.
Research by
Wegener and Petty (1994) showed...
(Wegener &
Petty, 1994)
A Work by Three to Five Authors:
List all the
authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the
source.
(Kernis,
Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
In subsequent
citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al."
in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
(Kernis et al., 1993)
In et al., et should not be followed by a period.
Six or More Authors:
Use the first
author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
Harris et al. (2001) argued...
(Harris et al., 2001)
Unknown Author:
If the work does
not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use
the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are
italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation
marks. A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers
("Using APA," 2001).
Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for
the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference
list, use the name Anonymous as the author.
Organization as an Author:
If the author is
an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal
phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.
According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...If the
organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in
brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation
in later citations. First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD],
2000)
Second citation: (MADD, 2000)
Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses:
When your
parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they
appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.
(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)
Authors With the Same Last Name:
To prevent
confusion, use first initials with the last names.
(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson,
1998)
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year:
If you have two
sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c)
with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case
letters with the year in the in-text citation.
Research by Berndt (1981a)
illustrated that...
Personal Communication:
For interviews,
letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the
communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date
of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference
list.
(E. Robbins, personal
communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also
claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal
communication, November 3, 2002).
Citing Indirect Sources
If you use a
source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your
signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the
secondary source in the parentheses.
Johnson argued that... (as cited
in Smith, 2003, p.102).
Note: When citing material in parantheses, set off the citation
with a comma, as above.
Electronic Sources
If possible,
cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the
author-date style.
Kenneth (2000) explained...
Unknown Author and Unknown Date:
If no author or
date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of
the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for
"no date").
Another study of
students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with
tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Sources Without Page Numbers
When an
electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information
that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic
document has numbered paragraphs, use the symbol, or the abbreviation
"para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, 5) or (Hall,
2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes
headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that
heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use
the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite.
According to
Smith (1997), (Mind over Matter section, para. 6).
Note: Never use the page numbers of Web pages you print out;
different computers print Web pages with different pagination.
Reference List: Basic Rules
Your reference
list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information
necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body
of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference
list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your references
should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page
References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of
the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.
All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation. Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors. Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work. If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest. When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.
Reference List: Author/Authors
The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple
authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of
the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.)
Single Author
Last name first, followed by author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social
development. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the "&" instead of
"and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood
management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
Three to Six Authors
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the
last author name is preceded again by "&"
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A.,
& Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or
low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65,
1190-1204.
More Than Six Authors
If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro,
R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3),
213-245.
Organization as Author
American Psychological Association. (2003).
Unknown Author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate
dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of
sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title
instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate.
For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as
follows: (Merriam-Webster's,
1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).
Two or More Works by the Same Author
Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year
(earliest comes first).
Berndt, T.J. (1981).
Berndt, T.J. (1999).
When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as
the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students'
adjustment to school. Educational
Psychologist, 34, 15-28.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence
on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child
Development, 66, 1312-1329.
References that have the same first author and different second and/or
third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second
author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the
same.
Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty,
R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury
instructions. Psychology,
Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654.
Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994).
Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of
likelihood judgments. European
Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43.
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same
group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize
them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or
chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in
your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a)
makes similar claims..."
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time
in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17,
408-416.
Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial
intentions and behavior. Child
Development, 52, 636-643.
Reference List: Articles in Periodicals
Basic Form
APA style dicates that authors are named last name followed by initials;
publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of
the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns
in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is
followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or
underlined.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year).
Title of article. Title of
Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.
Article in Journal Paginated by Volume
Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and
continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing
psychology journal articles. Journal
of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Article in Journal Paginated by Issue
Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the
issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses
and issue number are not italicized or underlined.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30),
5-13.
Article in a Magazine
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in
today's schools. Time, 135,
28-31.
Article in a Newspaper
Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper
reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take
pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen
state energy policies. The
Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.
Letter to the Editor
Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter
to the editor]. Scientific
American, 287(2), 12.
Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge
myth [Review of the book The
self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.
Reference List: Books
Basic Format for Books
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also
for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
NOTE: For "Location," you should always list the
city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the
city could be confused with one in another state.
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Edited Book, No Author
Duncan, G.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Edited Book with an Author or Authors
Plath, S. (2000). The
unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.
A Translation
Laplace, P. S. (1951). A
philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L.
Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814).
NOTE: When you cite a republished work, like the one above,
work in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).
Edition Other Than the First
Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th
ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication).
Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of
chapter). Location: Publisher.
NOTE: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in
parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp.
1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in
periodical references, except for newspapers.
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's
gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In
B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender
issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols.
1-4). New York: Scribner's.
Reference List: Other Print Sources
An Entry in An Encyclopedia
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica
(Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Work Discussed in a Secondary Source
List the source, the work was discussed in:
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of
reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100,
589-608.
NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the
text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For
example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and
you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the
References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis,
Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...
Dissertation Abstract
Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation
(Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62,
7741A.
Government Document
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental
illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Report From a Private Organization
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the
treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington,
D.C.: Author.
Conference Proceedings
Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995).
Proceedings from CSCL '95: The
First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reference List: Electronic Sources
Article From an Online Periodical
Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include
all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in
parantheses.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. Title of
online periodical, volume number(issue number if available).
Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make
Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006 from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. Title of
journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature
of human rights. Journal
of Buddhist Ethics, 8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
If the article appears as a printed version as well, the URL is not
required. Use "Electronic version" in brackets after the article's
title.
Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through appointment
[Electronic version]. Social
Science Research, 29, 535-555.
Article From a Database
When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a
database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information
(formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type
of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper
name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if
they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You
can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end,
but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing
articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication
Manual.)
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A
study of enjoyment of peas. Journal
of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from
PsycARTICLES database.
Nonperiodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report
List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have
to hunt around to find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a page like
http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm doesn't have the
information you're looking for, move up the URL to http://www.somesite.com/):
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of document.
Retrieved month date, year, from http://Web address.
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page,
provide a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also,
if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.
Chapter or Section of a Web document
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section
number). Retrieved month day, year from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/.
Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL
Rewriting Engine. In Apache
HTTP Server Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.) Retrieved
March 10, 2006 from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL
that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.
E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you
parenthetically cite them in your main text: (E. Robbins, personal
communication, January 4, 2001).
Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting
Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group. Include
the title of the messsage, and the URL of the newsgroup or discussion board.
Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the
cyberworld of toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted to
http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html
NOTE: If only the screen name is available for the author,
then use the screen name; however, if the author provides a real name, use
their real name instead. Be sure to provide the exact date of the posting.
Follow the date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in
italics). Provide any identifiers in brackets after the title, as in other
types of references.
Computer Software
Ludwig, T.
(2002). PsychInquiry [computer software]. New York: Worth.
For more help with citing electronic sources, see the APA
style web site's coverage of electronic references or Frequently
Asked Questions about APA Style from the APA web site, or
visit our additional resources section.
Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources
Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead,
parenthetically cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal
communication, and the date of the communication in your main text only.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with
APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Motion Picture
Basic reference list format:
Producer, P. P.
(Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion
picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide
distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin:
(Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability
Smith, J.D.
(Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [Motion picture].
United States: Paramount Pictures.
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability
Harris, M.
(Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture].
(Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN
47907)
Television Broadcast or Series Episode
Producer, P. P.
(Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [Television broadcast or Television
series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Single Episode of a Television Series
Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director).
(Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P.
Producer (Producer), Series
title. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Wendy, S. W.
(Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the
falling ape [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and monsters.
Los Angeles: Belarus Studios.
Television Broadcast
Important, I. M.
(Producer). (1990, November 1). The
nightly news hour [Television broadcast]. New York: Central
Broadcasting Service.
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L.
(Producer). (1992). Exciting
action show [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting
Company.
Music Recording
Songwriter, W.
W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from
song writer]. On Title of
album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if
different from copyright date).
Taupin, B.
(1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt
cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited.
For more about citing audiovisual media, see pages 266-269 of the
Publication Manual.
End of chapter-15
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